Contents / विषय-सूची (7)
  1. 1. Physical Properties (भौतिक गुणधर्म)
  2. 2. Chemical Properties (रासायनिक गुणधर्म)
  3. 3. Chemical Bonding (रासायनिक आबंध)
  4. 4. Occurrence & Refining (धातु कर्म एवं परिष्करण)
  5. 5. Corrosion & Prevention (संक्षारण एवं सुरक्षा)
  6. 6. NCERT Solutions
  7. 7. Solved PYQs (CBSE Board Questions)
🌐 Language / भाषा:
Class 10 • Science

Chapter 3: Metals and Non-metals

Explore physical and chemical properties of metals, the reactivity series, ionic compound formation, and the metallurgy of ore refining. Metals and non-metals के physical and chemical properties, reactivity series, ionic compound formation, और ores के metallurgy refining के बारे में विस्तार से समझें।

1. Physical Properties (भौतिक गुणधर्म)

Goal: Differentiate between metals and non-metals based on lustre, hardness, malleability, ductility, heat/electrical conductivity, and sonority. Goal: Lustre, hardness, malleability, ductility, heat/electrical conductivity, और sonority के आधार पर metals और non-metals के बीच अंतर को स्पष्ट रूप से समझें।
Real-Life Application: Kitchen Cookware Have you noticed that cooking pans are made of copper or aluminum with plastic or wooden handles? Copper and aluminum are metals that conduct heat quickly to cook food, while plastic and wood are non-metals that are poor conductors of heat, protecting your hands [NCERT p. 39]. क्या आपने कभी ध्यान दिया है कि खाना पकाने के बर्तन copper या aluminum के बने होते हैं और उनके हैंडल लकड़ी या प्लास्टिक के होते हैं? Copper और aluminum metals (धातु) हैं जो बहुत तेज़ी से heat conduct करते हैं ताकि खाना पक सके, जबकि प्लास्टिक और लकड़ी non-metals (अधातु) हैं जो heat के poor conductors (कुचालक) होते हैं, जिससे आपके हाथ सुरक्षित रहते हैं [NCERT p. 39]

Elements can be classified into metals and non-metals depending on their physical parameters [NCERT p. 37]: तत्वों (elements) को उनके physical गुणों (physical parameters) के आधार पर metals (धातु) और non-metals (अधातु) में वर्गीकृत किया जा सकता है [NCERT p. 37]:

Physical Properties of Metals Metals के physical properties

Copper Wire (ताँबे का तार) Pin falls as wax melts Free end with pin (पिन लगा स्वतंत्र सिरा)
Figure 3.1 — Metal wire heating experiment to demonstrate high Thermal Conductivity in metals. [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.1, p. 38]
BATTERY 6 V + - Bulb (बल्ब) Switch (स्विच) A B Metal Sample (जाँच की जाने वाली धातु)
Figure 3.2 — Testing the electrical conductivity of metals setup. The glowing bulb indicates that metals are good conductors of electricity. [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.2, p. 39]

Physical Exceptions to Remember [NCERT p. 40] याद रखने योग्य भौतिक अपवाद [NCERT p. 40]

Exceptions to General Properties: सामान्य गुणों के अपवाद:
  • Mercury is a metal but exists as a liquid at room temperature. Mercury एक धातु है लेकिन कमरे के तापमान पर liquid (तरल) रूप में पाई जाती है [NCERT p. 40]
  • Gallium (Ga) and Caesium (Cs) have such low melting points that they melt in your hand. Gallium (Ga) और Caesium (Cs) के melting points इतने कम होते हैं कि वे हथेली पर ही पिघल जाते हैं [NCERT p. 40]
  • Iodine is a non-metal but has a shining lustre. Iodine एक non-metal है लेकिन इसमें एक shining lustre (चमकदार चमक) होती है [NCERT p. 40]
  • Carbon is a non-metal, but its allotrope Diamond is the hardest natural substance known, and Graphite conducts electricity. Carbon एक non-metal है, लेकिन इसका allotrope (अपररूप) Diamond सबसे कठोर प्राकृतिक पदार्थ है, और Graphite electricity conduct करता है [NCERT p. 40]
  • Alkali metals (Lithium, Sodium, Potassium) are so soft they can be sliced with a knife. क्षारीय धातुएँ (Lithium, Sodium, Potassium) इतनी soft (मुलायम) होती हैं कि उन्हें चाकू से काटा जा सकता है [NCERT p. 40]

Conductivity & Properties Tester चालकता और गुणधर्म परीक्षक

Select an element to test electrical conductivity, hardness, and metallic lustre: Electrical conductivity, hardness, और metallic lustre का परीक्षण करने के लिए एक element चुनें:

Copper (Cu)Copper (ताँबा)
Sodium (Na)Sodium (सोडियम)
Graphite (C)Graphite (ग्रेफाइट)
Sulfur (S)Sulfur (गंधक)
Diamond (C)Diamond (हीरा)
Iodine (I)Iodine (आयोडीन)
Properties Viewport
6V + -
Section Summary (भौतिक गुणधर्मों का सारांश)
  • Metals are generally lustrous, malleable, ductile, sonorous, and good conductors of heat and electricity [NCERT pp. 37-39]. Metals आम तौर पर चमकदार (lustrous), आघातवर्धनीय (malleable), तन्य (ductile), ध्वानिक (sonorous) और heat/electricity के अच्छे conductors होते हैं [NCERT pp. 37-39]
  • Non-metals can be solids, liquids (bromine), or gases, and are poor conductors of heat and electricity (except graphite) [NCERT pp. 39-40]. Non-metals ठोस, तरल (bromine), या गैस हो सकते हैं और heat/electricity के poor conductors होते हैं (Graphite को छोड़कर) [NCERT pp. 39-40]
  • Exceptions exist: Mercury is a liquid metal, sodium can be cut with a knife, iodine is lustrous, and diamond is the hardest substance [NCERT p. 40]. अपवाद मौजूद हैं: Mercury liquid धातु है, Sodium को चाकू से काटा जा सकता है, Iodine चमकदार है, और Diamond सबसे कठोर पदार्थ है [NCERT p. 40]

Checkpoint 1

Which non-metal is an electrical conductor, and which metal will melt in your hand? कौन सा non-metal electrical conductor है, और कौन सी धातु हथेली की गर्मी (hand heat) से पिघल जाएगी?
Correct! Graphite (an allotrope of Carbon) is a non-metal that conducts electricity, and Gallium melts at a very low temperature (palm heat) [NCERT p. 40]. सही! Graphite (Carbon का allotrope) एक non-metal है जो electricity conduct करता है, और Gallium बहुत कम तापमान (हथेली की गर्मी) पर पिघल जाता है [NCERT p. 40]

2. Chemical Properties (रासायनिक गुणधर्म)

Goal: Learn how metals react with oxygen, water, acids, and salt solutions, and understand the Reactivity Series. Goal: यह सीखें कि metals, oxygen, water, acids, और salt solutions के साथ कैसे react करते हैं, और Reactivity Series (सक्रियता श्रेणी) को समझें।
Real-Life Analogy: School Club Popularity Think of chemical reactivity like popularity in a school club. A highly active and popular student (like Sodium or Potassium) can easily strike up conversations and reacts immediately. A less active student (like Copper or Gold) is quiet and does not react. A more active student can easily take the seat of a less active student (displacement), but the quiet student cannot displace the popular one! रासायनिक reactivity (अभिक्रियाशीलता) को स्कूल क्लब में लोकप्रियता (popularity) की तरह समझें। एक अत्यधिक active छात्र (जैसे Sodium या Potassium) तुरंत react करता है। एक शांत छात्र (जैसे Copper या Gold) बहुत ही कम react करता है। एक अधिक active छात्र आसानी से एक शांत छात्र का स्थान ले सकता है (displacement), लेकिन शांत छात्र लोकप्रिय छात्र को विस्थापित नहीं कर सकता!

1. Reaction with Oxygen [NCERT §3.2.1] 1. Oxygen के साथ अभिक्रिया [NCERT §3.2.1]

Almost all metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides, which are basic: लगभग सभी metals, oxygen के साथ react करके metal oxides बनाते हैं, जो basic (क्षारीय) प्रकृति के होते हैं:

Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide
2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s) (Black Copper Oxide)
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s) (Aluminium Oxide)

Amphoteric Oxides (उभयधर्मी ऑक्साइड): Metal oxides that react with both acids and bases to produce salt and water [NCERT p. 41]. Examples: Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and Zinc oxide (ZnO): वे धातु ऑक्साइड जो acids और bases दोनों के साथ react करके salt और पानी बनाते हैं [NCERT p. 41]। उदाहरण: Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) और Zinc oxide (ZnO):

Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O (Acid Reaction)
Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 (Sodium Aluminate) + H2O (Base Reaction) [NCERT p. 41]

2. Reaction with Water [NCERT §3.2.2] 2. पानी के साथ अभिक्रिया [NCERT §3.2.2]

Metals react with water to form metal oxide (which may dissolve to form metal hydroxide) and hydrogen gas: Metals, पानी के साथ react करके metal oxide (जो बाद में घुलकर hydroxide बना सकता है) और hydrogen gas बनाते हैं:

Metal + Water → Metal Oxide/Hydroxide + Hydrogen Gas
Water (जल) Glass wool soaked in water / काँच का ऊन Metal Sample / धातु का नमूना Hydrogen Gas / हाइड्रोजन गैस
Figure 3.3 — Laboratory apparatus setup to study the Action of Steam on a Metal. [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.3, p. 43] Figure 3.3 — धातु पर भाप (steam) की क्रिया के अध्ययन के लिए प्रयोगशाला उपकरण। [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.3, p. 43]

3. Reaction with Acids [NCERT §3.2.3] 3. Acids के साथ अभिक्रिया [NCERT §3.2.3]

Metals react with dilute acids to produce salt and hydrogen gas: Metals, dilute acids के साथ react करके salt और hydrogen gas उत्पन्न करते हैं:

Metal + Dilute Acid → Salt + Hydrogen Gas
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Exceptions: अपवाद:

4. Reaction with Salt Solutions (Displacement) [NCERT §3.2.4] 4. धातु लवणों के विलयन के साथ अभिक्रिया (Displacement) [NCERT §3.2.4]

A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt solution: एक अधिक reactive (सक्रिय) धातु, कम reactive धातु को उसके salt solution से विस्थापित (displace) कर देती है:

Metal A + Salt Solution B → Salt Solution A + Metal B
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) (Blue) → FeSO4(aq) (Light Green) + Cu(s) (Red-Brown deposit)
Tube A (Fe + CuSO₄) Tube B (CuSO₄ control) Thread / धागा Iron Nail / लोहे की कील Copper coating / ताँबे की परत CuSO₄ solution / नीला विलयन
Figure 3.4 — Reaction of iron nail with copper sulphate solution. Iron is more reactive than copper and displaces it from copper sulphate solution, forming light-green iron sulphate. [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.4, p. 45] Figure 3.4 — Copper sulphate के विलयन के साथ लोहे की कील की reaction। Iron, copper से अधिक reactive है और उसे विस्थापित कर देता है। [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.4, p. 45]

5. The Reactivity Series [NCERT §3.2.5] 5. सक्रियता श्रेणी (Reactivity Series) [NCERT §3.2.5]

Arrangement of metals in order of decreasing reactivity: धातुओं को उनकी घटती हुई reactivity (क्रियाशीलता) के क्रम में व्यवस्थित करना:

Reactivity Order: सक्रियता का क्रम: K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > [H] > Cu > Hg > Ag > Au [NCERT p. 45]

Reactivity Series & Displacement Lab रिएक्टिविटी सीरीज़ और विस्थापन लैब

Reaction Log & Atomic Zoomअभिक्रिया लॉग और परमाणु ज़ूम Select options above and click Dip to see if displacement occurs.
Displacement Tester
Fe
Section Summary (रासायनिक गुणधर्मों का सारांश)
  • Metals form basic oxides when reacting with oxygen. Amphoteric oxides (like Al2O3, ZnO) react with both acids and bases to yield salt and water [NCERT p. 41]. Metals, oxygen के साथ react करके basic oxides बनाते हैं। Amphoteric oxides (जैसे Al2O3, ZnO) acids और bases दोनों से react करके salt और पानी बनाते हैं [NCERT p. 41]
  • Reactive metals (K, Na) react violently with cold water; magnesium reacts with hot water; Al, Zn, Fe react with steam; and noble metals (Cu, Au) do not react [NCERT pp. 42-43]. अधिक reactive metals (K, Na) ठंडे पानी से अत्यधिक तीव्र अभिक्रिया करते हैं; Magnesium गर्म पानी से; Al, Zn, Fe केवल भाप (steam) से; और noble metals (Cu, Au) पानी से react नहीं करते [NCERT pp. 42-43]
  • The Reactivity Series ranks metals from highest to lowest reactivity. A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt solution [NCERT p. 45]. Reactivity Series धातुओं की सक्रियता का घटता क्रम है। अधिक सक्रिय धातु, कम सक्रिय धातु को विस्थापित कर देती है [NCERT p. 45]

Checkpoint 2

Which of the following reaction equations represents a correct displacement reaction? निम्नलिखित में से कौन सा समीकरण एक सही विस्थापन अभिक्रिया (displacement reaction) को दर्शाता है?
Correct! Iron is more reactive than Copper in the Reactivity Series and easily displaces it. Copper and Silver are less reactive than Iron/Copper and do not displace them [NCERT p. 45]. सही! Iron (लोहा), Reactivity Series में Copper से अधिक reactive है और उसे विस्थापित कर देता है। Copper और Silver कम सक्रिय होने के कारण विस्थापन नहीं कर पाते [NCERT p. 45]

3. Chemical Bonding (रासायनिक आबंध)

Goal: Understand how metals lose electrons to form positive ions and non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions, creating ionic bonds. Goal: समझें कि metals कैसे electrons खोकर positive ions बनाते हैं और non-metals कैसे electrons पाकर negative ions बनाते हैं, जिससे ionic bonds (आयनिक आबंध) बनते हैं।
Real-Life Analogy: Gifting a Toy Think of ionic bonding like a gift. Sodium (Na) has one extra toy (valence electron) that makes it unstable, and Chlorine (Cl) is missing exactly one toy to complete its set of 8. Instead of sharing, Sodium simply gifts the electron to Chlorine. Sodium becomes positive (cation Na⁺) and Chlorine becomes negative (anion Cl⁻). Because opposites attract, they bind together tightly as a pair! Ionic bonding को उपहार (gifting) की तरह समझें। Sodium (Na) के पास एक extra खिलौना (valence electron) है जो उसे unstable बनाता है, और Chlorine (Cl) को अपना 8 का सेट पूरा करने के लिए केवल 1 खिलौने की ज़रूरत है। Sodium अपना electron, Chlorine को उपहार में दे देता है। Sodium धनावेशित (cation Na⁺) बन जाता है और Chlorine ऋणावेशित (anion Cl⁻)। क्योंकि विपरीत आवेश (opposites) आकर्षित करते हैं, वे एक साथ मजबूती से जुड़ जाते हैं!

1. Electron Transfer & Ionic Bond Formation [NCERT §3.3] 1. Electron Transfer और आयनिक आबंध निर्माण [NCERT §3.3]

Noble gases have completely filled valence electron shells and show little chemical activity. Other elements react to achieve this stable octet configuration: उत्कृष्ट गैसों (Noble gases) की बाहरी कक्षा पूरी तरह भरी होती है और वे रासायनिक रूप से शांत होती हैं। अन्य तत्व इसी stable octet (अष्टक) विन्यास को प्राप्त करने के लिए react करते हैं:

Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) [NCERT p. 47] Sodium Chloride (NaCl) का निर्माण [NCERT p. 47]

A sodium atom has one electron in its outermost valence shell. If it loses this electron, it forms a stable sodium cation (Na⁺). A chlorine atom has seven valence electrons and needs one electron to complete its octet. The transfer of one electron from sodium to chlorine forms NaCl: Sodium (Na) की बाहरी कक्षा में 1 electron होता है। इसे खोकर यह Na⁺ बनाता है। Chlorine (Cl) की बाहरी कक्षा में 7 electrons होते हैं और अष्टक पूरा करने के लिए 1 electron चाहिए। Sodium से Chlorine की ओर electron का स्थानांतरण NaCl बनाता है:

Na 2, 8, 1 + Cl 2, 8, 7 [Na]⁺ [Cl]⁻
Figure 3.5 — Transfer of electron from sodium to chlorine atom to form sodium chloride. [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.5, p. 47] Figure 3.5 — Sodium Chloride बनाने के लिए sodium से chlorine परमाणु में electron का स्थानांतरण। [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.5, p. 47]

Formation of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl₂) [NCERT p. 48] Magnesium Chloride (MgCl₂) का निर्माण [NCERT p. 48]

A magnesium atom has two valence electrons (2,8,2). It transfers one electron to each of two chlorine atoms, forming a magnesium cation (Mg²⁺) and two chloride anions (2Cl⁻) to yield magnesium chloride: Magnesium (Mg) के पास दो valence electrons (2,8,2) होते हैं। यह दो अलग chlorine परमाणुओं को 1-1 electron स्थानांतरित करता है, जिससे Mg²⁺ cation और दो Cl⁻ anions बनते हैं और MgCl₂ प्राप्त होता है:

Mg 2, 8, 2 Cl 2, 8, 7 Cl 2, 8, 7 [Mg]²⁺ [Cl]⁻₂
Figure 3.6 — Formation of magnesium chloride by electron transfer from magnesium to two chlorine atoms. [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.6, p. 48] Figure 3.6 — Magnesium से दो chlorine परमाणुओं में electron स्थानांतरण द्वारा magnesium chloride का निर्माण। [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.6, p. 48]

2. Properties of Ionic Compounds [NCERT §3.3.1] 2. आयनिक यौगिकों (Ionic Compounds) के गुणधर्म [NCERT §3.3.1]

  1. Physical Nature: Hard, crystalline solids because of strong inter-ionic forces, but brittle and break under pressure [NCERT p. 49]. Physical Nature (भौतिक प्रकृति): मजबूत inter-ionic बलों के कारण ये कठोर और क्रिस्टलीय ठोस होते हैं, लेकिन ये भंगुर (brittle) होते हैं और दाब डालने पर टूट जाते हैं [NCERT p. 49]
  2. Melting & Boiling Points: Very high melting and boiling points because breaking the strong electrostatic crystal lattice requires a large amount of thermal energy [NCERT p. 49]. Melting & Boiling Points (गलनांक एवं क्वथनांक): इनके melting और boiling points बहुत अधिक होते हैं क्योंकि मजबूत स्थिरवैद्युत आकर्षण को तोड़ने के लिए बहुत अधिक ऊर्जा की आवश्यकता होती है [NCERT p. 49]
  3. Solubility: Soluble in polar solvents like water, but insoluble in organic solvents like kerosene or petrol [NCERT p. 49]. Solubility (घुलनशीलता): ये पानी (polar solvent) में घुलनशील होते हैं, लेकिन kerosene या petrol जैसे कार्बनिक विलायकों में अघुलनशील (insoluble) होते हैं [NCERT p. 49]
  4. Electrical Conduction:विद्युत चालकता:
    • Do not conduct in solid state because ions are locked in a rigid crystal lattice and cannot move [NCERT p. 49]. Solid state में विद्युत का चालन नहीं करते क्योंकि कठोर जालक संरचना में आयन गति करने के लिए स्वतंत्र नहीं होते हैं [NCERT p. 49]
    • Conduct in molten or aqueous state because heat or water molecules break the inter-ionic bonds, allowing free ions to migrate toward opposite electrodes [NCERT p. 49]. Molten (गलित) या aqueous (जलीय) अवस्था में चालन करते हैं क्योंकि गर्मी या पानी के अणु अंतर-आयनिक बंधों को तोड़ देते हैं, जिससे मुक्त आयन गति कर सकते हैं [NCERT p. 49]
Burner & Flame / बर्नर एवं ज्वाला Spatula / स्पेक्टुला
Figure 3.7 — Heating a salt sample on a spatula. Most ionic compounds have high melting points and do not melt easily over a laboratory burner. [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.7, p. 48] Figure 3.7 — स्पैटुला पर लवण के नमूने को गर्म करना। अधिकांश ionic compounds का melting point बहुत उच्च होता है। [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.7, p. 48]
Salt solution / लवण का विलयन Electrodes
Figure 3.8 — Testing the conductivity of salt solution. The glowing bulb indicates that ionic compounds conduct electricity in the aqueous state. [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.8, p. 48] Figure 3.8 — लवण के विलयन की चालकता का परीक्षण। जलता हुआ बल्ब दर्शाता है कि ionic compounds aqueous अवस्था में विद्युत का चालन करते हैं। [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.8, p. 48]
Section Summary (रासायनिक आबंधों का सारांश)
  • Reactivity of elements is driven by the tendency to achieve a stable octet configuration (noble gas electronic configuration) [NCERT p. 47]. तत्वों की reactivity उनके बाहरी कोश में एक stable octet (स्थिर अष्टक विन्यास) प्राप्त करने की प्रवृत्ति पर निर्भर करती है [NCERT p. 47]
  • Ionic compounds are formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal (cation) to a non-metal (anion), held together by electrostatic forces [NCERT p. 48]. Ionic compounds का निर्माण metal से non-metal में electrons के स्थानांतरण से होता है, जो स्थिरवैद्युत बलों द्वारा बंधे रहते हैं [NCERT p. 48]
  • Ionic compounds are hard, brittle crystalline solids with high melting and boiling points. They conduct electricity only in molten or aqueous states [NCERT p. 49]. ये यौगिक कठोर, भंगुर और उच्च melting/boiling points वाले होते हैं। ये केवल गलित (molten) या जलीय (aqueous) अवस्था में बिजली का चालन करते हैं [NCERT p. 49]

Checkpoint 3

Why do ionic compounds not conduct electricity in the solid state but conduct in aqueous solutions? Ionic compounds ठोस अवस्था (solid state) में विद्युत का चालन क्यों नहीं करते, लेकिन जलीय विलयन (aqueous solution) में क्यों करते हैं?
Correct! In the solid state, electrostatic forces keep the ions locked in place. In aqueous solutions, water molecules shield and separate the ions, allowing them to flow freely and conduct electric current [NCERT p. 49]. सही! ठोस अवस्था में मजबूत स्थिरवैद्युत बल आयनों को उनकी जगह पर जकड़े रखता है। जलीय विलयन में पानी के अणु आयनों को मुक्त कर देते हैं, जिससे वे स्वतंत्र रूप से बह सकते हैं और विद्युत धारा का चालन करते हैं [NCERT p. 49]

4. Occurrence & Refining (धातु कर्म एवं परिष्करण)

Goal: Understand the extraction of metals from ores based on reactivity, and learn how metals are purified by electrolytic refining. Goal: सक्रियता के आधार पर ores (अयस्कों) से metals के निष्कर्षण को समझें, और सीखें कि electrolytic refining द्वारा धातुओं को कैसे शुद्ध किया जाता है।
Real-Life Analogy: Purifying Recyclables Imagine digging up old copper wires buried deep in wet clay. First, you get the clay-coated cables (ores, containing clay impurities or gangue). Next, you wash off the loose dirt (concentration). Then, you melt them to get raw copper (reduction). Finally, to make super-conducting wires, you run electricity through a chemical bath to sort pure copper from trace impurities (electrolytic refining). Metallurgy is this exact cleaning journey! गीली मिट्टी में दबे पुराने तांबे के तारों को खोदने की कल्पना करें। सबसे पहले, आपको मिट्टी से ढके तार मिलते हैं (ores, जिनमें मिट्टी की अशुद्धियाँ या gangue होता है)। इसके बाद, आप धूल धोते हैं (concentration)। फिर, आप उन्हें पिघलाकर कच्चा तांबा प्राप्त करते हैं (reduction)। अंत में, बिजली गुजारकर शुद्ध तांबा अलग करते हैं (electrolytic refining)। धातु कर्म (Metallurgy) बिल्कुल यही सफाई यात्रा है!

1. Metallurgy Terms [NCERT §3.4] 1. धातुकर्म से जुड़े पद (Metallurgy Terms) [NCERT §3.4]

HIGH REACTIVITY K · Na · Ca · Mg · Al Electrolysis of Molten Ore (गलित अयस्क का विद्युत अपघटन) MEDIUM REACTIVITY Zn · Fe · Pb · Cu Reduction using Carbon (Coke) (कार्बन द्वारा अपचयन) LOW REACTIVITY Ag · Au Found in Native / Free State (प्राकृतिक मुक्त अवस्था में) Reactivity Series Categories (सक्रियता श्रेणी के आधार पर धातु कर्म)
Figure 3.9 — Activity series and related metallurgy extraction categories. [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.9, p. 50]

Steps in Ore Extraction Flowchart [NCERT Fig 3.10] अयस्क निष्कर्षण के चरण - फ्लोचार्ट [NCERT Fig 3.10]

Select a metal reactivity tier below to highlight its extraction pathway in the flowchart: फ्लोचार्ट में उसके निष्कर्षण मार्ग (extraction pathway) को देखने के लिए नीचे एक सक्रियता स्तर चुनें:

OREORE (अयस्क)
Concentration of OreConcentration of Ore (अयस्क का सांद्रण)
Metals of High ReactivityMetals of High Reactivity (उच्च अभिक्रियाशील धातुएँ)
Electrolysis of molten oreElectrolysis of molten ore (गलित अयस्क का विद्युत अपघटन)
Pure MetalPure Metal (शुद्ध धातु)
Metals of Medium ReactivityMetals of Medium Reactivity (मध्यम अभिक्रियाशील धातुएँ)
Carbonate OreCarbonate Ore (कार्बोनेट अयस्क)
CALCINATIONCALCINATION (निस्तापन)
Sulphide OreSulphide Ore (सल्फाइड अयस्क)
ROASTINGROASTINGROASTING (भर्जन)
Oxide of MetalOxide of Metal (धातु का ऑक्साइड)
Reduction to MetalReduction to Metal (धातु में अपचयन)
Refining / PurificationRefining / Purification (शोधन)
Metals of Low ReactivityMetals of Low Reactivity (निम्न अभिक्रियाशील धातुएँ)
Sulphide OresSulphide Ores (सल्फाइड अयस्क)
ROASTINGROASTING (भर्जन)
Metal ExtractionMetal (धातु निष्कर्षण)
Refining / PurificationRefining / Purification (शोधन)

2. Extraction Processes [NCERT §3.4.3, §3.4.4, §3.4.5] 2. धातु निष्कर्षण की प्रक्रियाएँ [NCERT §3.4.3, §3.4.4, §3.4.5]

3. Electrolytic Refining of Copper [NCERT §3.4.6] 3. कॉपर का विद्युत अपघटनी परिष्करण (Electrolytic Refining) [NCERT §3.4.6]

Purification of impure metal by electrolysis: विद्युत अपघटन (electrolysis) द्वारा अशुद्ध धातु का शुद्धिकरण:

BATTERY + - Anode (Impure copper) / एनोड Cathode (Pure copper) / कैथोड Acidified CuSO₄ electrolyte Anode mud / एनोड पंक
Figure 3.12 — Electrolytic refining of copper. The electrolyte is acidified copper sulphate. Copper dissolves from the impure anode and deposits on the pure cathode. [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.12, p. 52] Figure 3.12 — ताँबे का विद्युत अपघटनी परिष्करण। अशुद्ध एनोड से ताँबा घुलकर शुद्ध कैथोड पर जमा होता है। [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.12, p. 52]

Electrolytic Refining Lab विद्युत अपघटनी परिष्करण लैब

Turn on power to purify the copper block. Observe copper ions migrating, anode mud settling, and electrode sizes changing: कॉपर ब्लॉक को शुद्ध करने के लिए पावर चालू (ON) करें। कॉपर आयनों का प्रवाह और एनोड पंक का बैठना देखें:

Refinery Tank
DC Anode(+) Cathode(-)
Section Summary (धातु कर्म का सारांश)
  • Ores are concentrated by removing gangue. Metals of low reactivity are reduced by heating; medium reactivity by calcination/roasting followed by carbon reduction; high reactivity by electrolysis [NCERT pp. 50-52]. Ores को गैंग (gangue) हटाकर सांद्रित किया जाता है। कम सक्रियता वाली धातुएँ गर्म करके, मध्यम सक्रियता वाली calcination/roasting के बाद carbon reduction द्वारा, और उच्च सक्रियता वाली electrolysis द्वारा प्राप्त की जाती हैं [NCERT pp. 50-52]
  • Electrolytic refining uses impure metal as anode, pure metal as cathode, and acidic salt solution as electrolyte. Purified metal deposits on the cathode [NCERT p. 53]. Electrolytic refining में अशुद्ध धातु का anode, शुद्ध धातु का cathode और अम्लीय लवण विलयन electrolyte होता है। शुद्ध धातु cathode पर जमा होती है [NCERT p. 53]
  • Alloying (mixing metals with other metals/non-metals) improves properties: Brass (Cu-Zn), Bronze (Cu-Sn), and Solder (Pb-Sn) are common examples [NCERT p. 55]. मिश्रातु (alloying) से धातुओं के गुण सुधरते हैं: Brass (Cu-Zn), Bronze (Cu-Sn), और Solder (Pb-Sn) इसके सामान्य उदाहरण हैं [NCERT p. 55]

Checkpoint 4

During the electrolytic refining of copper, what substance is used as the anode and where do insoluble impurities collect? Copper के electrolytic refining में anode के रूप में किसका उपयोग होता है और अघुलनशील अशुद्धियाँ कहाँ एकत्रित होती हैं?
Correct! Impure copper serves as the positive anode. Upon passing current, copper atoms dissolve into the electrolyte, while insoluble gangue impurities settle directly under the anode as anode mud [NCERT p. 53]. सही! अशुद्ध ताँबा positive anode का कार्य करता है। करंट प्रवाहित करने पर, कॉपर परमाणु इलेक्ट्रोलाइट में घुल जाते हैं, जबकि अघुलनशील अशुद्धियाँ एनोड पंक (anode mud) के रूप में एनोड के नीचे जमा हो जाती हैं [NCERT p. 53]

5. Corrosion & Prevention (संक्षारण एवं सुरक्षा)

Goal: Understand the chemical conditions that cause corrosion on silver, copper, and iron, and learn how to prevent rusting using galvanisation and alloying. Goal: Silver, copper, और iron पर संक्षारण (corrosion) के रासायनिक कारणों को समझें, और सीखें कि galvanisation व alloying (मिश्रातु) द्वारा लोहे को जंग लगने से कैसे बचाया जाता है।
Real-Life Analogy: Protective Jackets Just as we wear raincoat jackets to protect ourselves from rain and dampness, metals need "protective jackets" (oil, paint, zinc layers, or alloys) to block contact with air and moisture, keeping them from rotting away! जैसे हम बारिश और नमी से बचने के लिए रेनकोट पहनते हैं, वैसे ही धातुओं को जंग लगने से बचाने के लिए "सुरक्षा जैकेट" (तेल, पेंट, जिंक की परत या मिश्रधातु) की आवश्यकता होती है, जो उन्हें हवा और नमी के संपर्क से बचाते हैं!

Corrosion (संक्षारण): The slow eating away of metal surfaces by action of air, moisture, or chemicals [NCERT p. 53, 57]. हवा, नमी या रसायनों की क्रिया द्वारा धातु की सतहों का धीरे-धीरे नष्ट होना [NCERT p. 53, 57]

Corrosion of Common Metals सामान्य धातुओं का संक्षारण

Investigating Rusting Conditions (Activity 3.14) जंग लगने की आवश्यक शर्तें (क्रियाकलाप 3.14)

Let's explore the conditions under which iron rusts. Move the slider below to simulate the rusting process over a 7-day timeline in three different test tubes: आइए देखें कि लोहे में जंग किन परिस्थितियों में लगता है। तीन अलग-अलग परखनलियों में 7-दिनों की समय-सीमा पर जंग की प्रक्रिया देखने के लिए नीचे दिए गए स्लाइडर को खिसकाएं:

Rusting Conditions Lab जंग लगने की स्थिति का परीक्षण लैब

Adjust the time slider to watch iron nails corrode under different conditions: समय स्लाइडर को समायोजित करके विभिन्न परिस्थितियों में लोहे की कीलों में जंग लगते हुए देखें:

Day 1 (Fresh)दिन 1 Day 3दिन 3 Day 5दिन 5 Day 7 (Corroded)दिन 7
Activity 3.14 Setup
Tube A / परखनली A Tube B / परखनली B Tube C / परखनली C
Figure 3.13 — Investigating the conditions under which iron rusts. Tube A contains both air and water, Tube B lacks dissolved air, and Tube C lacks moisture. [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.13, p. 53] Figure 3.13 — उन परिस्थितियों की जाँच करना जिनके अंतर्गत लोहे में जंग लगता है। [Adapted from NCERT Fig. 3.13, p. 53]

Prevention of Corrosion संक्षारण से सुरक्षा

Rusting of iron can be prevented by keeping the metal surface blocked from oxygen and water: धातु की सतह को हवा (oxygen) और पानी के संपर्क से बचाकर लोहे में जंग लगने को रोका जा सकता है:

Alloy Properties to Remember: मिश्रधातु (Alloy) के याद रखने योग्य गुण: The electrical conductivity and melting points of alloys are less than those of pure metals: Alloys की electrical conductivity और melting points, शुद्ध धातुओं की तुलना में कम होते हैं:
  • Brass (Cu + Zn) and Bronze (Cu + Sn) are not good conductors of electricity, unlike pure copper [NCERT p. 54]. Brass (Cu + Zn) और Bronze (Cu + Sn) बिजली के अच्छे चालक नहीं होते, जबकि शुद्ध कॉपर चालक है [NCERT p. 54]
  • Solder (Pb + Sn) has a very low melting point and is used for welding electrical wires together [NCERT p. 54]. Solder (Pb + Sn) का melting point बहुत कम होता है और इसका उपयोग बिजली के तारों को जोड़ने के लिए किया जाता है [NCERT p. 54]
Ancient Metallurgy: The Iron Pillar at Delhi प्राचीन धातुकर्म: दिल्ली का लौह स्तंभ
Built near the Qutub Minar more than 1600 years ago by Indian iron workers, this 8-meter high, 6-tonne structure is celebrated worldwide for its exceptional rust-resistance, showcasing India's historic metallurgical expertise [NCERT p. 54]. कुतुब मीनार के पास 1600 से अधिक वर्ष पूर्व भारतीय लौह-कर्मकारों द्वारा निर्मित यह 8 मीटर ऊँचा, 6 टन भारी ढांचा अपनी असाधारण जंग-प्रतिरोधी क्षमता के लिए दुनिया भर में प्रसिद्ध है, जो भारत के ऐतिहासिक धातुकर्म कौशल को दर्शाता है [NCERT p. 54]
Section Summary (संक्षारण सारांश)
  • Corrosion forms silver sulphide (black) on silver, basic copper carbonate (green) on copper, and rust (brown flaky oxide) on iron in the presence of moisture and air [NCERT p. 53]. नमी और हवा की उपस्थिति में संक्षारण के कारण silver पर silver sulphide (काला), copper पर basic copper carbonate (हरा), और iron पर rust (भूरा ऑक्साइड) बनता है [NCERT p. 53]
  • Rusting of iron requires both oxygen (air) and water (moisture) simultaneously, as proven by Activity 3.14 [NCERT p. 53]. लोहे में जंग लगने के लिए oxygen (हवा) और water (नमी) दोनों का एक साथ होना आवश्यक है, जैसा कि क्रियाकलाप 3.14 से सिद्ध होता है [NCERT p. 53]
  • Prevention involves oiling, painting, galvanising (zinc sacrificial layer), and alloying. Alloys like stainless steel, brass, bronze, and solder have different properties from their parent elements [NCERT p. 54]. बचाव में ऑइलिंग, पेंटिंग, गैल्वनाइजिंग (Sacrificial Zinc Layer) और मिश्रधातु बनाना शामिल हैं। Alloys के गुण उनके मूल तत्वों से भिन्न होते हैं [NCERT p. 54]

Checkpoint 5

Why does galvanised iron remain protected from rusting even if the zinc coating is scratched or broken? यदि जिंक की परत पर खरोंच आ जाए या वह टूट जाए, तो भी गैल्वनाइज्ड लोहा जंग लगने से सुरक्षित क्यों रहता है?
Correct! Zinc has a higher reactivity than iron, so it reacts with air and moisture preferentially, protecting the underlying iron from oxidation even when cracked [NCERT p. 54]. सही! Zinc की reactivity (सक्रियता) लोहे से अधिक होती है, इसलिए यह हवा और नमी के साथ पहले react कर लेता है, जिससे दरार पड़ने पर भी नीचे मौजूद लोहे को जंग लगने से बचाया जा सकता है [NCERT p. 54]
What You Can Now Do (Skills checklist): अब आप क्या कर सकते हैं (ज्ञान की क्षमता):
  • ☑ Differentiate metals and non-metals by physical and chemical properties [NCERT pp. 37, 57]. ☑ Physical और chemical properties के आधार पर metals और non-metals में अंतर कर सकते हैं [NCERT pp. 37, 57]
  • ☑ Predict displacement reactions using the Reactivity Series [NCERT p. 45]. ☑ Reactivity Series का उपयोग करके displacement (विस्थापन) reactions का पूर्वानुमान लगा सकते हैं [NCERT p. 45]
  • ☑ Show how ionic bonds form through electron transfer diagrams [NCERT p. 47]. ☑ Electron transfer diagrams बनाकर दिखा सकते हैं कि ionic bonds कैसे बनते हैं [NCERT p. 47]
  • ☑ Explain calcination, roasting, and electrolytic refining [NCERT pp. 51, 53]. ☑ Calcination (निस्तापन), roasting (भर्जन), और electrolytic refining को समझा सकते हैं [NCERT pp. 51, 53]
  • ☑ Demonstrate that rusting requires both moisture and air through a virtual lab timeline [NCERT p. 53]. ☑ वर्चुअल लैब टाइमलाइन से प्रदर्शित कर सकते हैं कि जंग लगने के लिए नमी और हवा दोनों की आवश्यकता होती है [NCERT p. 53]
  • ☑ Identify common alloys (brass, bronze, solder, stainless steel) and their properties [NCERT pp. 54-55]. ☑ सामान्य मिश्रधातुओं (brass, bronze, solder, stainless steel) और उनके गुणों की पहचान कर सकते हैं [NCERT pp. 54-55]

6. NCERT Solutions

Goal: Review comprehensive, step-by-step solutions to all in-text and chapter-end textbook questions.

In-Text Questions

Q1. Give an example of a metal which: (i) is a liquid at room temperature, (ii) can be easily cut with a knife, (iii) is the best conductor of heat, (iv) is a poor conductor of heat. [NCERT p. 40]

(i) Liquid metal: Mercury (Hg)

(ii) Easily sliced metal: Sodium (Na), Potassium (K)

(iii) Best conductor of heat: Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu)

(iv) Poor conductor of heat: Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg)

Q2. Explain the meanings of malleable and ductile. [NCERT p. 40]

Malleability: The property of metals due to which they can be beaten or rolled into thin sheets without cracking (e.g. gold, silver, aluminum foils) [NCERT p. 38].

Ductility: The property of metals due to which they can be drawn or stretched into thin wires (e.g. copper, gold) [NCERT p. 38].

Q3. Why is sodium kept immersed in kerosene oil? [NCERT p. 46]

Sodium is a highly reactive alkali metal. When exposed to air, it reacts violently with atmospheric oxygen and moisture, releasing a large amount of heat which causes it to catch fire. To prevent accidental fires and restrict contact with air and moisture, it is stored under kerosene oil [NCERT p. 41].

Q4. Write equations for the reactions of: (i) iron with steam, (ii) calcium and potassium with water. [NCERT p. 46]

(i) Iron with Steam:

3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) → Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) [NCERT p. 43]

(ii) Calcium with water:

Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) [NCERT p. 43]

(iii) Potassium with water:

2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g) + Heat [NCERT p. 42]

Q5. Metal samples A, B, C, D were tested with different salt solutions. A displaced copper, B displaced iron, C displaced silver, and D displaced none. Answer: (i) Most reactive metal? (ii) Observation when B is added to copper sulphate? (iii) Arrange A, B, C, D in decreasing reactivity. [NCERT p. 46]

(i) Most reactive metal is B. It is the only metal capable of displacing iron, which is the most reactive metal salt listed in the test table.

(ii) If B is added to Copper(II) sulphate, displacement occurs because B is more reactive than iron, and iron is more reactive than copper. Thus, B will displace copper, and the blue color of copper sulphate solution will fade as a red-brown coating of copper deposits on metal B.

(iii) Arrangement in decreasing reactivity: B > A > C > D.

  • B is most reactive (displaces iron).
  • A is second (displaces copper but not iron).
  • C is third (displaces only silver).
  • D is least reactive (displaces nothing).
Q6. Which gas is produced when dilute hydrochloric acid is added to a reactive metal? Write the chemical reaction when iron reacts with dilute H2SO4. [NCERT p. 46]

Hydrogen gas (H2) is produced when a reactive metal reacts with dilute acid [NCERT p. 44].

Reaction of Iron with dilute H₂SO₄:

Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Q7. What would you observe when zinc is added to a solution of iron(II) sulphate? Write the chemical reaction that takes place. [NCERT p. 46]

Zinc is more reactive than Iron in the activity series. Therefore, Zinc will displace iron from iron(II) sulphate solution. The light-green color of the iron(II) sulphate solution will slowly fade to colorless, and a dark grey deposit of iron metal will coat the zinc strip [NCERT p. 45].

Equation:

Zn(s) + FeSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Fe(s)

Q8. (i) Write electron-dot structures for sodium, oxygen, and magnesium. (ii) Show Na2O and MgO formation by electron transfer. (iii) Name ions in these compounds. [NCERT p. 49]

(i) Electron-dot structures:

  • Sodium (Na, 2,8,1): Na (one valence dot)
  • Oxygen (O, 2,6): 6 dots surrounding the symbol 'O'
  • Magnesium (Mg, 2,8,2): Mg•• (two valence dots)

(ii) Electron Transfer:

  • Na₂O: Two Na atoms each transfer 1 electron to one O atom:
    2[Na] + 6-dot O → 2[Na]+ [O]2− (with 8 dots surrounding O)
  • MgO: One Mg atom transfers 2 electrons to one O atom:
    [Mg]•• + 6-dot O → [Mg]2+ [O]2−

(iii) Ions present:

  • In Na2O: Sodium cation (Na+) and Oxide anion (O2−).
  • In MgO: Magnesium cation (Mg2+) and Oxide anion (O2−).
Q9. Why do ionic compounds have high melting points? [NCERT p. 49]

Ionic compounds consist of oppositely charged ions arranged in a regular crystal lattice. The electrostatic forces of attraction holding these ions together are extremely strong. A very large amount of thermal energy is required to break these strong bonds and overcome the inter-ionic attractions, resulting in high melting points [NCERT p. 49].

Q10. Define the terms: (i) Mineral, (ii) Ore, (iii) Gangue. [NCERT p. 53]

(i) Mineral: Naturally occurring elements or compounds in the earth's crust.

(ii) Ore: A mineral from which a metal can be extracted profitably and easily.

(iii) Gangue: Unwanted impurities like soil, sand, and clay associated with ores.

Q11. Name two metals which are found in nature in the free state. [NCERT p. 53]

Gold (Au) and Platinum (Pt) are highly unreactive metals and are found in their elemental free state in nature [NCERT p. 50].

Q12. What chemical process is used for obtaining a metal from its oxide? [NCERT p. 53]

The chemical process is reduction. Depending on metal reactivity, we use:

  1. Heating alone: For low reactivity metals (e.g., Hg from HgO).
  2. Reduction with Carbon: For medium reactivity metals (e.g. zinc from ZnO using carbon coke) [NCERT p. 51].
  3. Electrolytic Reduction: For highly reactive metals (e.g. sodium by electrolysis of molten NaCl) [NCERT p. 52].
Q13. Metallic oxides of Zn, Mg, and Cu were heated with Zn, Mg, and Cu. In which cases will displacement occur? [NCERT p. 55]

Based on the reactivity order (Mg > Zn > Cu):

  • Zinc Oxide: Displacement occurs when heated with Magnesium (Mg + ZnO → MgO + Zn). No reaction with Copper.
  • Magnesium Oxide: No reaction with any metal because Magnesium is the most reactive.
  • Copper Oxide: Displacement occurs when heated with Zinc (Zn + CuO → ZnO + Cu) and Magnesium (Mg + CuO → MgO + Cu).
Q14. Which metals do not corrode easily? [NCERT p. 55]

Noble metals like Gold (Au) and Platinum (Pt) do not corrode easily because they are chemically inert and do not react with oxygen, moisture, or atmospheric gases.

Q15. What are alloys? [NCERT p. 55]

An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal, prepared by mixing them in their molten states [NCERT p. 55] (e.g. brass, bronze, stainless steel).

Chapter-End Exercises

Q1. Which of the following pairs will give displacement reactions? (a) NaCl and Cu, (b) MgCl₂ and Al, (c) FeSO₄ and Ag, (d) AgNO₃ and Cu. [NCERT p. 56]

Correct Option: (d) AgNO₃ solution and copper metal

Copper is more reactive than silver and will displace it from silver nitrate solution. In options (a), (b), and (c), the metal is less reactive than the metal in salt, so no displacement occurs.

Q2. Which method is suitable for preventing an iron frying pan from rusting? (a) applying grease, (b) applying paint, (c) applying a coating of zinc, (d) all. [NCERT p. 56]

Correct Option: (c) Applying a coating of zinc

Galvanising (coating with zinc) is best for cooking pans. Grease or paint would melt, burn, or dissolve during cooking, posing health hazards.

Q3. An element reacts with oxygen to give a water-soluble compound with a high melting point. The element is: (a) calcium, (b) carbon, (c) silicon, (d) iron. [NCERT p. 56]

Correct Option: (a) calcium

Calcium reacts with oxygen to form Calcium Oxide (CaO), an ionic compound with a high melting point that dissolves in water to form calcium hydroxide. CO₂ is a gas, SiO₂ is insoluble, and iron oxides have high melting points but are insoluble in water.

Q4. Food cans are coated with tin and not with zinc because: (a) zinc is costlier, (b) zinc has higher melting point, (c) zinc is more reactive, (d) zinc is less reactive. [NCERT p. 56]

Correct Option: (c) zinc is more reactive than tin

Zinc is highly reactive and would react with organic acids present in food to form toxic compounds. Tin is less reactive and safe.

Q5. You are given a hammer, battery, bulb, wires, and switch. (a) How could you use them to distinguish metals and non-metals? (b) Assess the usefulness of these tests. [NCERT p. 56]

(a) Setup: Connect the battery, switch, bulb, and wires in series leaving a gap. Insert samples. If the bulb glows, it conducts electricity (metal). Strike samples with a hammer. If they flatten into sheets, they are malleable (metal); if they shatter, they are non-metals.

(b) Usefulness: These physical tests are easy but have exceptions. For instance, graphite (non-metal) conducts electricity, and sodium (metal) is soft and brittle compared to normal hard metals. Chemical property tests are more reliable for categorization.

Q6. What are amphoteric oxides? Give two examples. [NCERT p. 56]

Metal oxides that show both acidic and basic behaviors, reacting with both acids and bases to produce salt and water, are called amphoteric oxides [NCERT p. 41]. Examples:

  1. Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)
  2. Zinc Oxide (ZnO)
Q7. Name two metals which will displace hydrogen from dilute acids, and two metals which will not. [NCERT p. 56]

Displace hydrogen: Magnesium (Mg) and Zinc (Zn) (above hydrogen in the reactivity series).

Do not displace hydrogen: Copper (Cu) and Gold (Au) (below hydrogen in the reactivity series) [NCERT p. 45].

Q8. In the electrolytic refining of metal M, what would you take as the anode, the cathode, and the electrolyte? [NCERT p. 57]

To refine a metal M:

  • Anode (+): Thick slab of impure metal M [NCERT p. 53].
  • Cathode (−): Thin, clean strip of pure metal M [NCERT p. 53].
  • Electrolyte: Aqueous solution of a soluble salt of metal M [NCERT p. 53].
Q9. Pratyush heats sulphur powder and collects gas. Action on: (i) dry litmus, (ii) moist litmus. Balanced equation? [NCERT p. 57]

Heating sulfur powder produces Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) gas: S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g).

(i) Action on dry litmus: No change in color because dry SO2 gas does not possess H+ ions.

(ii) Action on moist litmus: Turns blue litmus red because SO2 dissolves in moisture to form sulphurous acid (H2SO3), releasing H+ ions: SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq).

Q10. State two ways to prevent the rusting of iron. [NCERT p. 57]

1. Painting/Oiling: Applying paint or grease shields iron from contact with air and moisture.

2. Galvanisation: Coating iron with a thin layer of Zinc metal. Zinc is more reactive and oxidises preferentially, protecting the iron even if the zinc layer is scratched [NCERT p. 55].

Q11. What type of oxides are formed when non-metals combine with oxygen? [NCERT p. 57]

Non-metals combine with oxygen to form acidic oxides (like SO2, CO2) which dissolve in water to yield acids, or neutral oxides (like H2O, CO, N2O) that show no acidic/basic properties [NCERT p. 40].

Q12. Give reasons: (a) Pt, Au, Ag make jewellery, (b) Na, K, Li stored under oil, (c) Al reactive yet cooks food, (d) Carbonates/sulphides converted to oxides. [NCERT p. 57]

(a) Pt, Au, Ag: They have a brilliant lustre and are highly malleable and ductile. Being noble metals, they do not corrode or tarnish when exposed to air.

(b) Na, K, Li: They are highly reactive alkali metals that react violently with air and moisture, catching fire. immersion in kerosene oil isolates them from environment [NCERT p. 41].

(c) Aluminium: Aluminium reacts with oxygen in air to form a tough, thin, and stable layer of Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3) on its surface. This layer prevents further oxidation and corrosion, making it safe for cooking utensils [NCERT p. 41].

(d) Carbonate/Sulphide conversion: It is chemically much easier to reduce a metal oxide to its metal (using carbon or active metals) than to reduce sulfides or carbonates directly. Hence, calcination and roasting are carried out beforehand [NCERT p. 51].

Q13. Explain why tarnished copper vessels are cleaned with acidic lemon or tamarind juice. [NCERT p. 57]

Copper reacts with atmospheric carbon dioxide and moisture to form a green coating of basic copper carbonate [CuCO3 • Cu(OH)2]. Lemon and tamarind juice contain organic acids (citric and tartaric acids). These acids react with the basic copper carbonate to form soluble copper salts, dissolving the green coat and leaving the copper clean and shiny [NCERT p. 53].

Q14. Differentiate between metal and non-metal on the basis of their chemical properties. [NCERT p. 57]
Property Metals Non-metals
Ion Formation Form positive cations by losing electrons Form negative anions by gaining electrons
Oxides Nature Form basic or amphoteric oxides Form acidic or neutral oxides
Reaction with Acids React to evolve Hydrogen gas Do not react with dilute acids
Reducing Nature Act as strong reducing agents Act as oxidizing agents
Q15. A goldsmith dips gold bangles in a solution that makes them sparkle but reduces weight drastically. What is the solution? [NCERT p. 57]

The solution used is Aqua Regia (Latin for 'royal water'). It is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) and concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) in a 3:1 ratio [NCERT p. 44]. Aqua regia is a highly corrosive reagent that dissolves noble metals like gold. It dissolved the outer dull layer of gold, exposing the shiny metal beneath but reducing its weight significantly.

Q16. Give reasons why copper is used to make hot water tanks and not steel (an alloy of iron). [NCERT p. 57]

1. Reactivity with water/steam: Iron in steel reacts slowly with steam at high temperatures to form magnetic iron oxide (Fe3O4) and rust, corroding the tank over time [NCERT p. 43]. Copper does not react with water or steam at any temperature.

2. Thermal Conductivity: Copper is a much better conductor of heat than steel, allowing more energy-efficient heating of water.

7. Solved PYQs (CBSE Board Questions)

Goal: Test your knowledge with actual CBSE Board previous years' questions, solved with marking criteria.

1-Mark Questions (Objective / Very Short Answer)

Q1. Write the chemical equation for the thermite reaction. (CBSE 2020)

Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) → 2Fe(l) + Al2O3(s) + Heat [NCERT p. 52]

Q2. Which metal is alloyed with copper to make brass? (CBSE 2019)

Brass is an alloy of Copper (Cu) and Zinc (Zn) [NCERT p. 55].

2-Mark Questions (Short Answer - Type I)

Q3. Differentiate between roasting and calcination with chemical equations. (CBSE 2023)

Roasting: Heating sulfide ores in the presence of excess air to convert them to oxides [NCERT p. 51].
Equation: 2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) →Heat 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)

Calcination: Heating carbonate ores in limited or no air to convert them to oxides [NCERT p. 51].
Equation: ZnCO3(s) →Heat ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

3-Mark Questions (Short Answer - Type II)

Q4. (a) Show the formation of NaCl by electron transfer.
(b) Why does NaCl conduct electricity only in aqueous or molten form? (CBSE 2022)

(a) Electron transfer: Sodium (Na, 2,8,1) transfers its valence electron to Chlorine (Cl, 2,8,7) to form Na+ and Cl ions:
Na + 7-dot Cl → [Na]+ [Cl] [NCERT p. 47].

(b) Conductivity: In solid NaCl, ions are held tightly in a rigid structure and cannot move. In aqueous solution or molten state, the electrostatic bonds are broken, allowing free ions to migrate and conduct electricity [NCERT p. 49].

5-Mark Questions (Long Answer)

Q5. Explain the electrolytic refining of copper with a labeled diagram description and equations. (CBSE 2022)

Electrolytic refining of Copper:

  • Apparatus Setup: An acidic copper sulphate solution is used as electrolyte. A block of impure copper is the positive anode, and a thin sheet of pure copper is the negative cathode [NCERT p. 53].
  • Process: On passing current, copper atoms from the impure anode dissolve into the solution as Cu2+ ions. Simultaneously, an equal amount of Cu2+ ions from the electrolyte deposit as pure copper on the cathode [NCERT p. 53].
  • Equations:
    Anode: Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e
    Cathode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e → Cu(s)
  • Impurities: Soluble impurities dissolve, whereas insoluble impurities settle beneath the anode as anode mud [NCERT p. 53].